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Connection in Creative Virtual Teams
Jill E. Nemiro
California State Polytechnic University, Pomona

ABSTRACT

This paper describes a qualitative study investigating the work environment necessary for virtual teams to be creative. Nine virtual teams, with a total of 36 team members participated. One semi-structured, telephone interview was conducted with each participant. Team members also completed a background survey. Grounded theorizing was used to analyze the data and generate meaning. Connection, defined as the elements that need to be in place for a team to develop and maintain identity and a sense of community, emerged as important to the realization of creativity in virtual teams. Connection was further subdivided into task connection (made up of dedication/commitment, and goal clarity); and interpersonal connection (made up of information sharing, trust, and personal bond). 

Introduction

Creativity is increasingly becoming a critical topic for contemporary organizations. Perhaps one of the most crucial reasons for organizations to promote creativity has been global competition. To meet the demands of fierce global competition, organizational structures are changing, becoming increasingly more flexible. These new organizational structures, in which independent firms across the globe join together to function as a single corporation, are characterized by such terms as virtual, boundary-less, or networked (Davidow & Malone, 1992; Galbraith, 1995; O'Hara-Devereaux & Johansen, 1994).

Global competition has not only created a dire need for organizational creative efforts; it has forced companies to get products out faster. Teamwork in the virtual corporation is essential to tap into the best talent to create the highest quality and fastest response to customer needs. Virtual teams are groups of geographically dispersed organizational members who communicate and carry out their activities through information technology (Kristof, Brown, Sims, & Smith, 1995; Lipnack & Stamps, 1997). Thus, the traditional office, conceptualized as a collection of cubicles in a high rise, is shrinking as individuals are finding themselves working in an "anywhere/anytime" mode, connected to co-workers through information technology (O'Hara-Devereaux & Johansen, 1994).

Virtual team structures may lead to higher levels of team creativity as a result of more openness, flexibility, diversity, and added access to information as compared to more traditional group structures. However, it may be extremely difficult to build a sense of personal connection and trust in these types of structures--elements crucial to high levels of creativity (Ekvall, Arvonen, & Waldenstrom-Lindblad, 1983; Geber, 1995). In designing virtual teams, we cannot ignore the social context of such arrangements. Technology allows for the electronic connection of geographically spread out individuals, but it does not necessarily lead to effective personal connection, communication and creativity. Virtual corporations and teams cannot function without information technology. But technology alone is not the answer to the problems of working across geographical and cultural boundaries. The ultimate answers to these

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problems lie in the realm of human and organizational relations and creating work environments that bring out the best in people involved in these virtual structures.

What then can team designers, team leaders, and managers do to create a work environment that will help virtual teams realize their creativity? The answer to that question may be relatively simple--create a connection between team members. Connection involves both task connection (made up of dedication/commitment, and goal clarity) and interpersonal connection (made up of information sharing, trust, and personal bond). In this paper, I will describe a research project that explored the work environment necessary for virtual teams to be creative. The major focus will be to illustrate the concept of connection, and the accompanying dimensions, and to offer suggestions on how managers can establish and develop connection in their own virtual teams.

Background Literature

The Context for Creativity in Traditional Organizational and Team Structures

As early as 1954, Carl Rogers talked about the social conditions necessary for creativity, which included creating an environment characterized by psychological safety and freedom, high internal motivation, and the absence of external evaluation to allow creativity to flourish (Harrington, Block, & Block, 1987). Since that time, the literature investigating the influence of the social environment on creativity has further demonstrated the importance of creating the appropriate social conditions for enhancing creativity. Experimental research has demonstrated that creativity can be undermined by (a) evaluation (Amabile, 1979; Amabile, Goldfarb & Brackfield, 1990); (b) surveillance (Amabile et al., 1990); (c) reward (Amabile, Hennessey & Grossman, 1986; Kruglanski, Friedman & Zeevi, 1971; McGraw & McCullers 1979); (d) competition (Amabile, 1982); (e) time pressure (Amabile, Dejong & Lepper, 1976); (f) external motivational orientation (Amabile, 1985); and (g) restricted choice (Amabile & Gitomer, 1984; Runco, 1995; Shalley, 1991).  A strong link has also been found between intrinsic motivation and high levels of creativity of individuals (Amabile, 1983; Pelz & Andrews, 1966). Intrinsic motivation has been characterized as an internal locus of control, a sense of being self-driven, an excitement about the work, and a commitment to an idea (Amabile & S. Gryskiewicz, 1987).

An important outgrowth of the examination of social and environmental influences on creativity has been an increasing interest in the ways the work environment might influence the creativity of employees (Amabile, 1989; West & Farr, 1990). From a comprehensive review of the literature, Nemiro and Runco (1996) identified six factors necessary for a work environment that fosters creativity in organizations and work groups. The factors are described in Table 1. 
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Table 1
Factors Necessary for a Work Environment that Fosters Creativity 
in Organizations and Groups  

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Prior research, then, has shown that dimensions of connection, both task (clear direction and commitment) and interpersonal (trust and participative safety) are important for enhancing creativity in traditional organizational and team designs. However, these studies did not directly address dimensions that may be necessary when organizations and groups no longer interact in traditional structures.

The Context for Creativity in Virtual Teams

One of the problems with virtual work structures is that electronic interaction eliminates much of the work context, stripping off everything but the message and leaving the rest for inference. A major consideration for virtual teams is how much contextual information people need to work effectively and creatively, and how much of this information can be communicated across time and distance.

One of the contextual factors that is stripped away in virtual interactions is nonverbal communication. Although certain etiquettes have been established to communicate some form of nonverbal behavior through text, many virtual teams who communicate through media in which the message is shared in text or audio format (faxes, e-mail, phones) lose valuable visual nonverbal cues. Technology such as videoconferencing allows for the transmission of an image of the speaker as well; but, in most cases, the absence of visual nonverbal feedback is a characteristic of virtual interactions (Kiesler, Siegel, & McGuire, 1991). Nonverbal behavior can be used to control, regulate, and modify exchanges. Without such feedback, additional dimensions may be necessary to establish connection, coordination and collaboration for a work environment that will enhance creativity.

Another condition of computer-mediated communication is the level of dehumanization and social isolation that may develop in this type of communication. Some research has suggested that communication through electronic means is dehumanizing, creating a sense of social anonymity (Kiesler et al., 1991). As a result, messages in electronic mail tend to be stronger, and more uninhibited and assertive. Additional dimensions, then, may be necessary to establish connection, collaboration, and unity in the context of possible dehumanization and social isolation. 

Finally, another contextual factor that can lead to miscommunication in virtual teams is cultural differences or diversity. Virtual teams may be dispersed all over the globe, indicating that these teams may be made up of members from varying cultural backgrounds. Cultural diversity can be a boon for creativity, as individuals from varying backgrounds may offer differing perspectives and insights. However, considering the more or less "context-less" environment of virtual work, dimensions specifically addressing these cultural differences are important to include in a work environment conducive to creativity in virtual teams.

So, what has the research suggested about the dimensions necessary for facilitating creativity in virtual teams? Virtual teams are a fairly recent phenomenon, thus no known

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research (prior to the current study) has directly addressed the social context necessary for fostering creativity in virtual teams. However, some preliminary dimensions may be drawn from existing related research on virtual team effectiveness. This research has suggested that key factors in effective virtual teams have been establishing goal and role clarity, and a sense of trust among virtual team members.

Goal and role clarity

Lipnack and Stamps (1997) saw purpose as the essence of a virtual team, and the best predictor of success. Purpose stood for a range of terms including vision, mission, goals, tasks, and results. Common goals and vision were necessary to build loyalty and trust among geographically dispersed and culturally diverse virtual team members. George (1996) stressed that specifying the overall direction is crucial for virtual teams. Having clear guidelines and expectations agreed upon at the onset helps to ensure that members of virtual teams know what their tasks are and how they will accomplish them. O'Hara-Devereaux and Johansen (1994) also viewed shared goals as important to effective virtual teams. They wrote:

Distributed team members stay oriented to each other and their tasks through high-level shared vision, goals, and roles rather than through detailed implementation plans. This level of understanding is a critical substitute for the informal, face-to-face meetings that play such an important role in keeping on-site teams in tune with one another. (p. 125)

In addition to having clear, compatible, and shared goals, role clarity appears to be an important factor for successful virtual teams. Lipnack and Stamps (1997) suggested that roles helped geographically dispersed team members to relate. Roles for virtual team members, however, require greater clarification, and expectations need to be more explicit than in co-located teams (Kossler & Prestridge, 1996; Lipnack & Stamps, 1997). George (1996) suggested that one of the best practices for beginning virtual teamwork was to provide a profile of what team members were expected to do, including the roles of both virtual team members and their leaders. While role clarity is important for virtual team members, the roles they play are often multiple, and flexible due to the dynamic nature of virtual teams (Lipnack & Stamps, 1997).

Trust

Trust may be the most crucial dimension necessary for virtual team effectiveness. Davidow and Malone (1992) emphasized trust as a defining feature for virtual corporations:

The road to world-class supply chain management meanders through a series of cultural changes--to a new plateau of trust. To achieve true partnership, customers and suppliers must share information--on new products, designs, internal business plans, and long-term strategy--that once was closely guarded. (p. 145)  Lipnack and Stamps (1997) also stressed that trust is something virtual teams must possess, "In the networks and virtual teams of the Information Age, trust is a 'need to have' quality in productive relationships" (p. 174).

O'Hara-Devereaux and Johansen (1994) suggested that building trust in the early stages of team development is perhaps the most effective measure in guaranteeing the success of virtual teams. The key rule in building trust is to take the time to build relationships, to create "the human glue of teams" (p. 171).

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In a case study of one successful virtual team, Kristof et al. (1995) found three elements of trust: (a) trust the company placed in the team members, (b) trust the team members had in the organization, and (c) trust that existed between the members of the team. These three elements of trust combined to create an atmosphere where each team member had both the freedom and responsibility to contribute their best.

Trust may develop more slowly among virtual team members, as compared to face-to-face team members. With less visual contact, it may take longer to identify and adjust to the habits, quirks, and skills of team members (Kossler & Prestridge, 1996). George (1996) suggested that lack of trust or mistrust may put a virtual team on a "collision course."  And, unfortunately, mistrust is likely, as employees from different locations, cultures and technical backgrounds are apt to question how the information they offer will be used, whether their contribution will be recognized outside the team, and whether other team members will make an equal contribution to the work.

Summary

Elements of connection, then, have been shown to be important for enhancing creativity in traditional organizational and group designs, and crucial to the success of virtual teams. However, there is still considerable question about the unique dimensions of connection specific to highly creative virtual teams. The major objective of the current study was to decipher the key dimensions necessary for creating a work environment conducive to creativity in virtual teams. Connection emerged as a key component of the social context for creativity in virtual teams.

Methods

Data Collection

Nine different virtual teams, with a total of 36 virtual team members, participated in this study. Participation ranged from 100% of the team members in two teams to 25% of the members in one team. For the other six teams, participation ranged between 50-83% of the team members. (In this paper, names of the teams, individual team members, and other company specific information have been disguised to ensure the anonymity of the study's participants.)

One semi-structured interview was conducted with each participant. Interviews were conducted over the telephone and were audio-taped (with the consent of the participant). In the interviews, team members were asked to (a) provide background on the organization in which their team resides; (b) discuss their specific role in the team and describe a typical work day; (c) describe the characteristics, behaviors, and norms of their virtual team; (d) describe what they liked and did not like about working in a virtual team; (e) address the strengths and limitations of virtual teams; (f) describe how the creative process evolves in their virtual team; (g) share two stories of projects completed by their team--one story that they felt exemplified high creativity, and one story which exemplified low creativity (Amabile, 1990; Amabile & S. Gryskiewicz, 1987); and (h) comment on how crucial several specific dimensions of the work environment were to the effectiveness of their virtual team (dimensions previously shown as important for the realization of creativity, Amabile, 1990; Amabile & S. Gryskiewicz, 1987; Amabile & N. Gryskiewicz, 1989; Ekvall, 1983; and Ekvall et al., 1983). (Data that emerged from discussion of the last two topics--(g) and (h)--are particularly relevant to this paper's discussion.)

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After the interview, participants were either e-mailed or mailed a background survey. Thirty-three (out of 36) participants returned the background survey. The purpose of the survey was to provide descriptive information on the individual virtual team member, the virtual team, and the organization in which the virtual team resided. The survey was a mixture of both closed-ended and open-ended questions.

The Sample

Sampling in qualitative research is typically characterized as purposive or theoretical (Miles & Huberman, 1994; Strauss & Corbin, 1990, 1998). Maximum variation sampling is a form of purposive sampling in which the researcher deliberately selects a heterogeneous sample and observes the commonalities in their experiences (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Maximum variation sampling was the method that guided sampling in this study. Teams were purposively selected to vary on several key team and individual participant-level characteristics to increase the generalizability of the study's results.

Nature of the work. Teams varied with respect to the nature of their work and the organizations in which they resided. Three teams were organizational consulting firms including (a) Alpha Consultants Incorporated (ACI), specializing in assisting clients with organizational change; (b) Vital Training Group (VTG), specializing in personal productivity and time management training, and helping clients streamline their workflow; and (c) Jacobs/Taylor, who assisted clients in technological diffusion. 

Two teams were educational consortiums. The Job Search Consortium team was composed of career development professionals from universities with high quality MBA programs. The team's yearly task was to put on an effective, annual recruiting event for their students. The Electronic Learning Consortium (ELC) team was responsible for developing and maintaining a text-based, educational virtual community dedicated to education, medicine, psychology and disability issues.

Three teams were classified as on-line service providers. Two (of the three) teams resided in the same organization, Worldwide Software Development, a large software development company. The WN-Current Events team was responsible for producing an on-line publication which featured a calendar of events of what was happening on the on-line service network. The WN-Religion Forum team managed an on-line chat on religion. The third on-line service provider team resided in OfficeTech, a large, multi-national organization that manufacturers business machines and computers. The major work of the OfficeTech team was to develop and sustain a company virtual community to foster knowledge sharing among globally dispersed workers in the corporation.

The final team was made up of product design engineers, all of whom worked full-time for AutoMax, a large auto manufacturing company. The engineers were responsible for designing circuit boards for radios, clusters, odometers, anti-lock brakes, and electric windows.

Methods of communication.  Teams varied in the methods of communication used, and the degree of face-to-face communication utilized. Results for how frequently each individual team used each of 12 different communication methods are presented in Table 2. The most frequently used communication method for each team is shown in bold. E-mail was the most frequently used method of communication in seven out of the nine teams.

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Table 2  
Mean Frequency of Methods of Communication for Each Team ____________________________________________________________________

                                          [ Org. Cons.]      [Educ. Cons.]    [On-line Serv. Prov.]   [Engineers]  

      Method                       ACI         J/T       VTG      ELC      JSC     OfTch  WN-CE   WN-R    A/Max              

Note.  Scale used: 1 = rarely or never; 2 = a few times a month; 3 = a few times a week; 4 = daily; and 5 = several times a day.

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The degree of face-to-face communication used within the teams varied from none to a few times a week. The AutoMax and WN-Current Events teams had the most frequent face-to-face communication, with members in the same geographic location meeting a few times a week. Jacobs/Taylor was next, with face-to-face communication occurring at least on a monthly basis. Members of ACI, the Job Search Consortium, OfficeTech, and VTG teams met between 2 to 4 times a year. There was no face-to-face communication between team members on the ELC and the WN-Religion Forum teams.

Geographic dispersement.  Participants were mostly located within the United States, but were widely dispersed across the country, coming from Western, Central, and Eastern sections of the United States. California had the most participants, with 10 out of the 36 participants residing there. One participant was from England. Teams also varied in the number of members in each team that were geographically dispersed, ranging from only one member being physically separated from the rest of the group, to all team members residing in different geographic locations.

Work location.  While some team members worked out of a company office, others worked out of offices in their homes. Within teams, the combination of home-based and office-based members varied, ranging from teams where all the members worked in an office setting (AutoMax; Jacobs/Taylor), to a team where all the members worked in their homes (WN-Religion Forum).

Team and individual-participant demographics. The size of the teams varied from 3 to 12 individuals. Teams ranged in years in existence from as little as six months to as long as 15 years.

Individual participants varied widely in age, ranging from 23 to 58. The median age for the total sample was 40. Gender was evenly balanced in the overall sample, with 17 females and 19 males. Educational level varied, although all participants had at least some college education. Four participants had some college education, 7 had a bachelor's degree, 11 had some graduate education, 8 had attained master's degrees, and 3 had attained professional or doctorate degrees.

Data Analysis

The overall approach to data analysis followed Glaser and Strauss' (1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990, 1998) suggestion of using grounded theory techniques to generate an in-depth understanding of the phenomena under investigation. Value was placed on finding what emerged from the data, from what the participants discussed in the interviews, rather than on forcing the data into preconceived, a priori categories. Data analysis involved two major phases--data description and data explanation (Miles & Huberman, 1994).

Data description. The goal of the data description phase was to make "complicated things understandable by reducing them to their component parts" (Bernard, 1988, cited in Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 90). Specifically, this phase involved coding the interview transcripts. Two levels of coding were involved--first level coding and pattern coding (Miles & Huberman, 1994). In first-level coding, descriptive codes were suggested and data were summarized. One of the most useful techniques during this portion of the analysis process was memoing,"the theoretical write-up of ideas about

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codes and their relationships as they strike the analyst while coding" (Glaser & Strauss, 1967, p. 83). Over 100 theoretical memos were constructed on creating and defining new codes, combining codes, and constructing categories. HyperResearch, a computer-assisted data analysis program, was used during the coding process.

After interview transcripts were coded, the process of pattern coding began. Codes generated during first-level coding were reviewed for how they could be grouped together into categories. Memoing (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, 1998), visual displays (Miles & Huberman, 1994), and colleague meetings were utilized to view the data from a broader level.

To assess the reliability of coding, two independent raters check-coded (Miles & Huberman, 1994) selected portions of the interview transcripts that were originally coded by the author. Overall, inter-rater reliability was good, with perfect agreement on 69% of the quotes check-coded. Specific areas of disagreement were discussed until either agreement was reached or a code was revised and renamed to resolve the disagreement.

Data explanation  During this phase, the goal was to make "complicated things understandable by showing how their component parts fit together according to some rules--that is, theory" (Bernard, 1988, cited in Miles & Huberman, 1994, p. 90). Writing theoretical memos (Strauss & Corbin, 1990, 1998), and crafting diagrams and visual displays of the data (Miles & Huberman, 1994) were used to examine the relationships between the categories that emerged during the data description phase.

Survey data.  Descriptives and frequencies were calculated on the closed-ended survey data questions. Responses to open-ended survey questions were coded and categorized.

Data Presentation

The interview data to be presented in the next section focuses on describing and explaining the environmental features that emerged from what virtual team members shared when asked to discuss high and low creative experiences in their teams. To better describe and explain the answers to these questions, the participants' own words are provided. The goal is to provide an absorbing, coherent, and candid account of the virtual teams under investigation. In presenting the raw words of the participants, I did minimal editing, favoring authenticity over readability. A few conventions were used to present the words of these virtual team members. Pauses are indicated by three dots (...). Pertinent expressed emotions or nonverbal behavior are included within brackets, for example [laughs]. If irrelevant information was deleted from a quote, it is indicated by four dots (....). On occasion, clarifying information was added to a participant's words, which is enclosed in brackets: [   ]. My own dialog within a quote is indicated by pointed brackets: {   }.

Findings

A key category that emerged as important to an environment encouraging the realization of creativity in virtual teams was connection, defined as the elements that need to be in place for a team to develop and maintain identity and a sense of community. Connection was further subdivided into task and interpersonal connection. Environmental features within the overriding category of connection were summarized

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into five dimensions, shown in Table 3. Task connection was made up of the dimensions of dedication/commitment, and goal clarity; and interpersonal connection was made up of the dimensions of information sharing, trust, and personal bond. Each of these dimensions is described in more detail in the following sections.

Task Connection

Dedication/commitment.  When team members discussed high creativity experiences, they spoke of having a strong sense of dedication, intense involvement, and commitment to the project or task. They worked hard on difficult tasks and problems, and persevered.

But the bottom line, we've had people who are committed, who really want the thing to succeed, even if they're not... if the personalities have some kind of conflict. And so people are able to sort of disconnect the personality from the fact that the job is being done and how it's being done, and it's getting done properly. (Melanie, Job Search Consortium)

On the other hand, in low creativity experiences, the degree of commitment to a particular project differed among team members. Differing levels of commitment not only hampered creativity, but caused the mere existence of a project to be in jeopardy. Richard (of OfficeTech) candidly shares how he and his partner differed in terms of their levels of commitment to a project. As a result, a potentially creative outcome was dropped.

Keith was very keen to develop a model of knowledge sharing, got the software, did some preliminary work…. sent me a copy of his model electronically and we were going to collaborate on it. I was going to extend the model in ways I felt it needed to be, so on and so forth. The long and the short of it is it didn't work….

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The reason for failure is pretty darn simple. And that is, it wasn't as high a priority for me as it was for him.... it clearly was an example of low level of creativity and low level of anything... I really needed to be able to walk away from the office for a week, or more, and say, I'm unreachable, I'm doing something else. And for better or for worse, I didn't choose to do that. (Richard, OfficeTech)

Goal clarity.  A team's goals, and the clarity of those goals was a prevalent characteristic of high creativity stories.

I think we had [the] overall goal of making a product that could be manufactured, that would pass all of our testing, that was inexpensive. I think that basic underlying goal was always there and always clear. (Larry, AutoMax)

Interestingly, although goals were crucial for success in creative work, some participants felt it took more effort in a virtual team to make sure those goals were clear. Constant checking, feedback, and asking questions were needed to ensure clarification.

In low creativity stories, participants described situations in which goals were fuzzy or unclear. As a result, misunderstandings and faulty assumptions occurred, and valuable time was wasted. Melissa (of VTG) illustrates how a lack of clarity around the team's goals and roles lead to frustration, misunderstandings, and faulty assumptions.

… a marketing project we did, it was the least creative project, and it was the least fun. It was the most aggravating, where everybody was just pulling their hair out.... It should have been a very fun project. It was not fun because there were a lot of assumptions made, which I think sometimes a problem with [a] virtual environment is that assumptions are made by one party sitting in their office, closed door, typing away, and they said, oh yes this must be what this meant, so they fire off an e‑mail. We interpret it a completely different way. We don't have the luxury of a dialogue back and forth. Instead we have the aggravation of e‑mails back and forth, one shot e‑mails. So there was a tremendous amount of unclarity, and there was a lot of assumptions made about which party would do what, and who would pay for what, and what the end result would be, and basically what people's roles would be. So potentially it was a good project gone bad. (Melissa, VTG)

Additionally, for some of the teams, creativity suffered due to the indecision that resulted from unclear goals. Consequently, some projects became unwieldy. Cheryl (of ACI) revisits the "Manual from Hell" project to illustrate how lack of goal clarity turned a project into a frustrating, massive undertaking.

{What about an experience in which you felt the creativity of the group was rather low?} I don't have to think very far for this one. [Laughs] We have had a few little mishaps in my career here. The major one was what was now [we] affectionately refer to as the "Manual from Hell." It was a project where three consultants were writing this manual, and they each had a different section that

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they were supposed to write. And then I was to edit it and put it together and it was going to go to the client. It was actually pretty simple. But it just turned into this massive undertaking. It was like opening Pandora's box. Once they started writing, it was like, oh, we've got to talk about this and we've got to go out here and then oh well, let's talk about this. So, it just grew and grew and grew and grew. And it got to the point where there was no way that it was going to be finished when it was supposed to be. (Cheryl, ACI)

Finally, in a few of the team members’ low creativity experiences, goals were communicated clearly in initial face-to-face meetings. However as team members dispersed, goals were either forgotten or dropped.

Interpersonal Connection

Information sharing.  In the highly creative stories, team members described situations in which they communicated regularly with one another, shared the results of their efforts, offered open and honest feedback, and updated information regularly.

When people meet in a face-to-face meeting, individuals can be directly asked for information, feedback, or input. In virtual teams, individuals can also be directly asked electronically, but it is easier for individuals to "disappear" or drop out of the discussion. To avoid this, norms for communicating and exchanging information were created in many of the teams. For example, in the OfficeTech team, members agreed to talk daily.

Well, I think very regular, predictable communications, even if they're remote communications, are important. My principal colleague, Keith, and I agree to talk with each other at least once a day, and more typically several times a day. (Richard, OfficeTech)

All senior members of the Jacobs/Taylor team also agreed to daily phone contact, even on weekends.One of the ways in which we've figured out how to do this is, the senior members of the team have agreed upon daily contact times. We talk to each other every day, including week‑ends.... I know every night at 5:30 Pacific coast time, my partner is going to call me from wherever he is at, or I will call him. The person out of town calls home base is another rule. And so if I'm at home base, 5:30 every night, my phone will ring and it will be him. So, I can save up all of the things during the day, and I don't even have to think about that 'cause I know when that correspondence is going to take place. (Chad, Jacobs/Taylor)

However, in low creativity experiences, norms for communication were either not established, unclear, or ignored. Communication, and as a result, information exchange, became inconsistent or nonexistent.

There were several specific issues mentioned in the low creativity stories that led to problems in information sharing. The self-serving attitude of some team members (who withheld information to protect their own interests) hampered information sharing. In addition, some members experienced information overload. In attempting to deal with the constant flow of information between themselves and their geographically dispersed co-workers, some team members felt overwhelmed with more information than they could effectively comprehend. Finally, members of one team felt information was distorted as it was filtered electronically from the company's headquarters to the team leader, and down to individual team members.

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Trust. The most frequently-mentioned environmental feature surrounding the high creativity stories was trust. Trust was composed of several elements: (a) a sense of trust that individuals would do what they said within the designated time frame; (b) trust in the accurateness of the information provided by other team members; (c) trust that team members would give honest and constructive feedback on ideas, thoughts, and creative efforts shared electronically; (d) trust in one another's expertise and ability to do the work effectively; and (e) trust that other team members would hold ideas shared in confidence if requested.

Participants felt it took a great deal of trust to share ideas and accomplish work electronically, "there's a level of trust with putting everything that you're doing on [the] computer, and knowing everybody's seeing everything you're doing" (Melissa, VTG). Several participants suggested that trust was crucial not only for the team to be creative, but for the team to even exist.

Oh, it has to be 100%. The only way you can operate [in] this environment is to trust every person is doing what they should be doing, and also that they are not doing things to undermine the group as a whole. So, trust is just... I mean, it's crucial. You could not work in this kind of environment that we have….without trusting each other. (Todd, Job Search consortium)

Although trust was seen as essential in a virtual environment, it was sometimes difficult to establish, and it developed slowly. Trust developed from a sense of accountability, from seeing that others followed through on what they said they would do. Trust was also based on a belief in the expertise of others, and on positive, ongoing experiences with one another.

In low creativity stories, the level of trust waned, was lost, or did not exist at all. The most frequently mentioned reason for a decline in the level of trust was low accountability, team members not carrying through on their designated work, or not "pulling their weight." For example, in the ACI team, all of the team members interviewed mentioned the same project in their low creativity stories, adoringly named, the Manual from Hell. Lack of accountability was a key factor in why the team members felt the experience was low in creativity.

We fondly refer to it as the Manual from Hell. We were working on a project for a client and trying to come up with a manual that spelled out the steps that they had to go through in this process. It was a new process for us, and so it was where [we] were having to create something from the ground up.... the process was divvied up to different people to do different things. That didn't work well because some of the people didn't do their part by the deadline that they agreed to do it. So, then that caused the process to be pushed out. It caused the envelope to be pushed, because we did have a deadline that we had to have this to the client. So, the problem was everyone not getting their piece ready. (Barbara, ACI)

Personal bond.  One of the more intriguing themes that emerged was the ability of virtual teams to establish a personal connection or bond. Team members, even though separated by distance and sometimes time, in many instances suggested they felt like a family. A personal sense of connection can lessen the problematic misunderstandings and faulty assumptions that hamper creativity, and help to develop

Ó the Journal of Behavioral and Applied Management – Winter/Spring 2001 – Vol. 2(2) Page 106

the trust, respect, understanding, acceptance, and compassion that team members need to feel comfortable sharing ideas and taking risks across distances. This kind of connection goes beyond common goals and commitment to the work. Team members are also committed to and care for one another.

Personal connection in these virtual teams was established through face-to-face get-togethers; sharing humor and being playful with one another; sharing personal issues and crises with other team members; and, in general, functioning as a support network for one another.

Although one of the teams had never met face-to-face, for the majority of teams face-to-face contact was beneficial in beginning to develop a personal bond between team members. Several participants shared how their relationships with team members changed after they had met one another face-to-face. For example,

The fact that we are actually talking to the U.S., and we know names and everything, it really has made a big impact and a big improvement.... Since I went over there [to the United States] last October, and that was the first time anyone had gone over there from our area. I spent 3 weeks with them. When I came back, we've had an excellent relationship since then.... because up until then it was just a name. (Eric, AutoMax)

Sharing humor was another way virtual team members established a personal bond. Even for one of the teams that had never met face-to-face, humor helped to build a sense of community. 

We don't feel impersonal, because we translate our humor through the written word.... So we are using little bits of humor, and we're real loose and personal, we're not rigid. And we're very, very comfortable with each other. (Scott, WN-Religion Forum)

Sometimes, playful games were used to develop the team's identity.

We do crazy, silly little game things that build identity, little competitions, or silly things, that we share. And those become the inside jokes that people outside don't know but it forms identity and helps build community. (Chad, Jacobs/Taylor)

In any relationship, taking the time to show personal interest in another person helps to create a bond. The same holds true for virtual teams as well. Team members took the time to pass along